What Is Anarchism: Political Philosophy

Direct Answer

Anarchism is a political philosophy that rejects the legitimacy of the state and all forms of involuntary hierarchy, and advocates for a society organized on the basis of voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and decentralized self-governance. The term comes from the Greek anarkhia, meaning "without ruler," and anarchists argue that human beings are capable of governing themselves without the need for coercive authority.

The core claim of anarchism is that the state is an illegitimate institution that serves the interests of the ruling class and perpetuates inequality, exploitation, and violence. Anarchists extend this critique to all forms of hierarchical authority, including capitalism, patriarchy, and religious institutions. They argue that these structures are not necessary for social order but are, on the contrary, the primary sources of social disorder and injustice.

It is important to distinguish anarchism from chaos or nihilism. Anarchists do not advocate for the absence of social organization but for a different form of organization -- one based on voluntary association, direct democracy, and mutual aid rather than on coercion and hierarchy. The anarchist vision is not of a world without rules but of a world in which rules are freely agreed upon by equals rather than imposed by authorities.

Historical Context

The anarchist tradition emerged in the nineteenth century as part of the broader socialist movement, but it quickly developed in opposition to the authoritarian tendencies it saw in Marxism. The first major anarchist thinker was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who in What Is Property? (1840) declared that "property is theft." Proudhon advocated for a society based on mutualism, in which workers would control the means of production through cooperative associations.

Mikhail Bakunin was the founding figure of revolutionary anarchism. A rival of Marx in the First International, Bakunin argued that the state is inherently oppressive and that any revolution that seizes state power will simply reproduce the existing system of domination. He advocated for the immediate abolition of the state and the establishment of a federation of autonomous communes. Bakunin's critique of Marxist authoritarianism -- his prediction that a "dictatorship of the proletariat" would become a dictatorship over the proletariat -- proved prescient in light of twentieth-century Soviet history.

Peter Kropotkin developed the theory of anarcho-communism in works such as The Conquest of Bread (1892) and Mutual Aid (1902). Drawing on his scientific background as a geographer, Kropotkin argued that cooperation, not competition, is the driving force of evolution. He documented how animals and humans have survived and thrived through mutual aid, arguing that this natural tendency toward cooperation provides the foundation for an anarchist society.

Emma Goldman was the most influential anarchist thinker in the United States. She combined anarchism with feminism, critiquing not only the state and capitalism but also patriarchy, marriage, and traditional morality. Goldman argued that genuine freedom requires the liberation of all aspects of human life, including sexuality, artistic expression, and personal relationships.

Philosophical Perspectives

Anarchist philosophy rests on several foundational commitments. The first is a deep skepticism about the legitimacy of authority. Anarchists argue that no person or group has the right to rule over others without their consent. This is not a rejection of all forms of authority -- anarchists recognize the authority of expertise, for example, in the sense that we should listen to doctors about medicine -- but a rejection of the authority of command, of the right to compel obedience.

The second commitment is to the principle of voluntary association. Anarchists argue that all social relationships should be based on free consent rather than coercion. This includes economic relationships: anarchists oppose capitalism because it forces workers to sell their labor in order to survive, and they oppose state socialism because it replaces private bosses with state bosses. The anarchist alternative is a society of free associations, in which people voluntarily cooperate to produce and distribute goods.

The third commitment is to direct democracy and decentralization. Anarchists argue that political decisions should be made by those who are affected by them, through face-to-face deliberation and consensus-based decision-making. They reject representative democracy as a system that alienates political power from the people and concentrates it in the hands of a professional political class.

The fourth commitment is to mutual aid as a principle of social organization. Following Kropotkin, anarchists argue that human beings have a natural tendency to cooperate and help each other, and that this tendency can form the basis of a society without the state. Mutual aid, not competition, is the foundation of human progress and social cohesion.

Modern Reflection

Anarchism has experienced a significant resurgence in the twenty-first century, particularly in the context of global social movements. The anti-globalization movement of the 1990s and early 2000s, the Occupy movement of 2011, and the various horizontalist movements that emerged in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis all drew on anarchist ideas and practices. These movements emphasized leaderless organization, consensus decision-making, and direct action -- all hallmarks of anarchist practice.

Contemporary anarchist thought extends beyond the traditional critique of the state to address issues of race, gender, and ecology. Anarcha-feminism, developed by thinkers such as bell hooks and informed by the legacy of Emma Goldman, argues that patriarchy and the state are mutually reinforcing systems of domination. Green anarchism argues that the domination of nature is inseparable from the domination of human beings by the state and capitalism, and advocates for a society organized on ecological principles.

The critique of the state remains central to anarchism, but contemporary anarchists also focus on the power of corporations, the surveillance state, and the prison-industrial complex. Michel Foucault's analysis of power as dispersed throughout society rather than concentrated in the state has influenced anarchist thinking, as has the feminist insight that "the personal is political." The anarchist ideal of a society based on voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and direct democracy continues to inspire those who seek alternatives to the existing order of state and capitalist domination.