Common Sense

Overview

Common Sense, published in Philadelphia in January 1776, is the most influential political pamphlet in American history. Written by Thomas Paine, who had arrived in America only fourteen months earlier, it made a powerful and accessible argument for American independence from Britain and for the establishment of a republican form of government. The pamphlet sold an estimated 500,000 copies in its first year, reaching an audience far beyond the educated elite and transforming the colonial debate from a dispute over taxation and representation into a movement for complete independence.

The pamphlet's success was due in large part to its style. Paine wrote in a clear, direct, and passionate prose that ordinary readers could understand and feel. He avoided the learned references and Latin quotations of eighteenth-century political writing, and he addressed his readers as fellow citizens rather than as subjects. The effect was electrifying. The historian Gordon Wood has described Common Sense as the most incendiary and popular pamphlet of the entire revolutionary era, a work that changed the course of history.

Author Context

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was an English-born radical who had come to America at the urging of Benjamin Franklin. He had failed at almost every occupation he had tried in England, but he found his calling as a political writer in America. He was deeply influenced by the Enlightenment ideas of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and the social contract, and he combined these ideas with a fierce hatred of monarchy and hereditary privilege. Common Sense was his first major work, and it established him as the most effective political pamphleteer of the age.

The pamphlet was published anonymously, which was common at the time, and it was initially attributed to several prominent Americans. Paine used his own modest resources to finance the publication, and he donated the profits to the Continental Army. The pamphlet's success made him famous, but he never profited from it. The Stanford Encyclopedia notes that Common Sense is a remarkable fusion of political philosophy and popular rhetoric, a work that translates the abstract principles of the Enlightenment into the language of everyday political debate.

Historical Background

The American colonies had been in conflict with Britain since the end of the French and Indian War in 1763. The British government, seeking to pay off its war debts and to finance the administration of its expanded empire, had imposed a series of taxes and regulations on the colonies, including the Stamp Act (1765), the Townshend Acts (1767), and the Tea Act (1773). The colonists had responded with protests, boycotts, and the famous cry of "no taxation without representation."

By the beginning of 1776, the conflict had escalated into armed hostilities. The Battles of Lexington and Concord had been fought in April 1775, and the Continental Army had been formed in June. But there was still no consensus on the question of independence. Many colonists continued to hope for a reconciliation with Britain, and the Continental Congress had not yet taken a definitive stand. It was into this uncertain situation that Common Sense appeared, and it shifted the terms of the debate decisively in favor of independence.

Key Ideas

The Argument for Independence

Paine's central argument is that the American colonies have nothing to gain from continued connection with Britain. The British constitution, he argues, is not the balanced and perfect system its defenders claim it to be. It is a system of checks and balances that works, at best, to restrain the monarchy, but it does not give the colonies any real representation or protection. The relationship between Britain and America is not a partnership of equals but a relationship of domination, in which the interests of America are systematically sacrificed to the interests of Britain.

Paine's argument is not merely political but economic. The colonies, he argues, would be more prosperous as an independent nation than as a British dependency. Free trade with all nations would replace the restrictive trade policies of the British mercantile system, and the colonies would no longer be dragged into European wars that were not in their interest. Independence, Paine insists, is not a leap into the unknown but a realization of the natural and inevitable destiny of the American people.

The Critique of Monarchy

Paine's critique of monarchy is one of the most powerful and radical in the history of political thought. He argues that monarchy is a form of government based on the absurd principle of hereditary succession, which gives political power to individuals without regard to their merit, wisdom, or virtue. The institution of monarchy, he argues, is a usurpation of the natural equality of human beings, and it is the source of most of the wars, corruption, and oppression that have afflicted human history.

Paine's critique is particularly devastating in its treatment of the British monarchy. He traces the history of the Norman Conquest and the English monarchy, arguing that the kings of England have been, for the most part, a succession of tyrants and usurpers. The idea that the British monarchy is a source of stability and liberty is, in Paine's view, a myth perpetuated by the monarchy's beneficiaries. The true source of English liberty is not the monarchy but the struggles of the English people against the monarchy.

Republican Government

Paine's alternative to monarchy is republican government, based on the consent of the governed and the principle of representation. In a republic, political power is derived from the people, exercised through elected representatives, and limited by law. Paine's vision of republican government is one of simplicity and transparency: a single-chamber legislature, frequent elections, and a written constitution that defines the powers of government and the rights of citizens.

The American Revolution, Paine argues, is not merely a struggle for independence but an opportunity to establish a new form of government based on reason and consent. The colonies have the chance to create a political system that is free from the accumulated errors and corruptions of the Old World, a system that can serve as a model for the rest of humanity. This vision of America as a beacon of liberty and a model for the world has been one of the most enduring themes of American political culture.

Key Themes

Several themes run through Common Sense. The first is the theme of natural rights: the idea that all human beings are born with certain rights that no government can take away. The second is the theme of popular sovereignty: the idea that legitimate government is based on the consent of the governed. The third is the theme of anti-monarchism: a radical critique of hereditary rule as both unjust and irrational. The fourth is the theme of American exceptionalism: the idea that America has a special destiny and a unique role to play in the history of human freedom. The fifth is the theme of common sense itself: the idea that the arguments for independence are so obvious that they require no special learning or expertise to understand, only the ordinary exercise of reason and common sense.

Philosophical Meaning

Read as a work of political philosophy, Common Sense is a statement of the radical Enlightenment tradition of natural rights and popular sovereignty. Paine's arguments are drawn from the tradition of John Locke, but he gives them a more democratic and egalitarian inflection. Locke had argued that government is based on the consent of the governed, but he had also accepted the legitimacy of constitutional monarchy and the rights of property. Paine goes further, arguing that monarchy is inherently illegitimate and that the only legitimate form of government is a republic based on the direct consent of the people.

The philosophical significance of Common Sense lies not only in its arguments but in its method. Paine insists that political questions must be decided by reason and common sense, not by tradition, precedent, or authority. This is a radical application of the Enlightenment principle of the autonomy of reason, and it represents a challenge to the Burkean defense of tradition and prescription that would be articulated in response to the French Revolution. The pamphlet is a demonstration of the power of rational argument to shape political reality, and it remains a model of how political philosophy can be made accessible and effective.

Influence

Common Sense was the most influential political pamphlet of the American Revolution, and it played a decisive role in shifting public opinion in favor of independence. It was read aloud in taverns, churches, and public meetings, and it was discussed in newspapers and private correspondence throughout the colonies. George Washington said that the pamphlet had worked a powerful change in the minds of many men. The Declaration of Independence, which was adopted six months later, bears the imprint of Paine's arguments and his language.

The influence of Common Sense extends far beyond the American Revolution. It has been reprinted and read by revolutionaries and reformers around the world, and it has shaped the tradition of democratic radicalism from the nineteenth century to the present. The pamphlet's argument for republican government, its critique of monarchy, and its vision of America as a beacon of liberty have become enduring themes of American political culture. The Stanford Encyclopedia notes that Common Sense is not only a historical document but a living work of political philosophy, still capable of inspiring and challenging its readers.

Sources

1. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Thomas Paine." A comprehensive scholarly reference covering Paine's life and the philosophical context of Common Sense.
2. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Thomas Paine." An accessible overview of Paine's philosophical contributions, including the arguments of Common Sense.